Set sail on the legendary Nile River

Backgammon is one of the world’s oldest games dating back 5,000 years to Mesopotamia, now known as Iraq. The Egyptian form is believed to have originated from the ancient game of senet. Researchers estimate that senet dates to 3100 BC, based on their discovery of a hieroglyph that represented this game of moving pieces. Actual paintings of Egyptians playing senet appear on tomb walls from around 2500 BC, while intact boards have been unearthed from the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC). The most spectacular, a lavishly decorated blue board inscribed to Amenhotep III, dates to the 14th century BC.

Playing games with the afterlife

During or before the New Kingdom (1550-1077 BC), senet took on a profound meaning. Archaeologists uncovered papyrus writing from this period that they called the “Great Game Text,” which suggested that the movement of pieces around the board came to represent the journey of the ka, or soul, into the afterlife. Religious-themed markings on the unearthed boards themselves supported this finding, as did the writings in Chapter XVII of the Book of the Dead, the ancient text written by priests to guide the deceased into the next world.

The longest game in history

Ancient trade routes allowed Egyptians to share senet with other cultures throughout the Levant and beyond. Its simplicity and the primitive pieces it required for play made it easy to replicate using crude or improvised boards. Senet proved so enduring that it branched off into many versions, including brädspel—a game recovered from the Viking warship Vasa—and backgammon.

Lucky rolls and strategic movement

In today’s world of board games, backgammon is classified as a “race game” in that its object is to move all your pieces off the playing board first. This is accomplished with a combination of lucky rolls of the dice and strategic movement of your pieces relative to your opponent. It is astonishing that it has remained so prevalent and beloved over millennia, captivating the attention of Egyptians and board gamers across the world.

Flavorful and generously seasoned with aromatic herbs and spices, Egyptian cuisine draws on thousands of years of tradition, as well as the plentiful ingredients cultivated along the Nile’s fertile banks. While many visitors are familiar with favorites like hummus and shawarma, here are three of Egypt’s most distinctive foods:

• Aish baladi (Egyptian flatbread)
  Should you find yourself strolling the bustling streets of Cairo during the early-morning hours, you may notice young men on bicycles carrying heaping trays of freshly baked aish baladi, or Egyptian flatbread. This local favorite is also a common sight in the city’s lively markets, emerging from scorching hot ovens bearing its trademark golden brown color and heavenly aroma. Aish baladi is often served with a sprinkling of cracked wheat on the top and eaten at any meal or occasion. Delicious on its own, it is also perfect for sopping up every drop of whatever tempting Egyptian dish happens to accompany it.
  
• Ta’ameya (Egyptian falafel)
  If you have ever sampled the popular Middle Eastern snack known as falafel, it was most likely prepared in the traditional manner using chickpeas. In Egypt, however, the locals insist that it is best made using fava beans instead. This singular spin on falafel, called ta’ameya, results in an exceptionally light, moist texture, while the liberal use of garlic, onion and herbs such as parsley and cilantro (or coriander) adds brilliant color and vibrant flavor. Ta’ameya is primarily considered a breakfast food, but ardent devotees are happy to partake of the beloved dish at any time of day.
  
• Ful medames (Egyptian fava beans)
  From the tombs of old to today’s street vendors, ful medames has remained a cornerstone of Egyptian cookery for thousands of years. Today, ful (as it is known to locals), is composed of slow-cooked fava beans and served with an array of toppings and seasonings, including vegetables (pickled onions or tomatoes), herbs (parsley or cilantro) and a variety of seasonings such as salt, cumin, lemon, garlic and olive oil. One of Egypt’s most popular dishes, ful medames is a seemingly simple favorite that offers much more than initially meets the eye.

Shopping the bustling bazaars of Egypt—also known as souks—provides an opportunity to discover a plethora of unique wares. Shops and stalls line winding alleyways and corridors, selling everything from trinkets to handmade textiles to fragrant spices and perfumes, and much more. Some of Egypt’s best outdoor marketplaces include Khan el-Khalili in Cairo and the vibrant souk in Aswan. Below are a few of the most distinctive mementos Egypt has to offer its visitors.

• Coffee
  In Egypt, there is a coffee shop, or kahwa, on nearly every corner. Coffeehouses serve as social gathering places, political and cultural centers, and places to make business deals. In bazaars and markets across the country, you may overhear traders meeting in the local kahwa to negotiate their terms. You can find a wide range of coffees for purchase, from light to dark beans, and regular ground coffee to a version mixed with flavorful spices, in coffee shops and market stalls.
  
  
• Papyrus
  Papyrus is a long-lasting, durable writing surface created by ancient Egyptians out of the papyrus plant, from the sedge family of marsh grasses. It was made into sheets, which were sometimes pressed together and formed into rolls. The earliest known roll of papyrus, which was blank, dates to around 2900 BC, and the first examples of papyrus documents date to around 2500 BC.
  
  A popular memento, papyrus artwork can be found everywhere, though the quality will vary. Make sure when you are shopping that you have your eye on the real thing, and that it has been hand-painted. Banana leaves have become a popular (albeit brittle) imitation.
  
  
• Rugs and Textiles
  The earliest known tapestry weaving was done by ancient Egyptians between 1483 and 1411 BC. The dry desert climate preserved fragments of three linen tapestries that were found in the tomb of Thutmose IV. King Tutankhamen’s tomb (c. 1323 BC) also contained a tapestry-woven robe and glove.
  
  Egypt is well known for its textiles, ranging from linens and scarves to rugs and tapestries. Some fabrics are richly colored but unadorned, while others are covered in elaborate appliqué work. Handmade rugs come in a variety of materials and styles, including silk knotted rugs, wool knotted rugs and loom-woven kilims. Near the Great Pyramid of Giza, you can visit Harrania, a district known for its high-quality carpets, whimsical tapestries and well-known weaving workshops.

Offering favor with brew

To stay in the good graces of Mut, the revered mother goddess of ancient Egypt, one offered beer and other tributes. As the Queen of the Gods in Thebes (modern Luxor), her stature evolved over time, leading her to embody various forms: vulture, lioness, cow and cobra. Rulers eagerly aligned themselves with Mut to bolster their authority, recognizing her potent influence.

Egypt’s first divine family

Mut, the wife of the formidable god Amon, wielded remarkable power. Her self-creation myth endowed her with unique authority as “Mut, Who Giveth Birth But Was Herself Not Born of Any.” Among her offspring was Khonsu, the moon god. At the heart of her worship was Karnak Temple, where her statue once stood, which now resides in the Luxor Museum. The New Kingdom (16th-11th century BC) saw the dominance of the Amon-Mut-Khonsu triad in Egyptian spirituality.

Unveiling the divine desires

Karnak Temple, overseen by the priesthood, was off-limits to laypeople. Mut’s statue was believed to house her true spirit, or “ka”, making offerings an act of reverence. This ritual was a unique exception, as women officiated it—even when the pharaoh himself participated. Hieroglyphics etched into a Karnak column disclosed Mut’s preferences, emphasizing her affinity for the color red: wine, juice, flowers, candles and meat. Red beer, a Nile-produced favorite, also garnered her favor.

The modern world owes a debt of gratitude to the thinkers of ancient Egypt. These brilliant minds developed inventions and ironed out key concepts in math and science that went on to form the basis for many of the innovations we now hold dear.

Ancient Egyptians’ prodigious engineering skills might be most visible in the awe-inspiring Great Pyramids of Giza. Each piece of stone was set at an almost perfect right angle, an impressive feat in itself, while the stones were cut with finite precision. The pyramids’ cornerstones benefitted from a ball-and-socket design, which allowed the structures to adapt to changes in the area’s climate, while their sides were oriented to the four cardinal points on a compass—a tool that had not yet been invented when the pyramids were completed.

Research has shown that some of the stone blocks used to construct the pyramids were manufactured from an early form of concrete. To aid their construction projects, Egyptians also used simple machines and invented both ramps and levers.

Resourceful and imaginative, the Egyptians also experimented with glassmaking, became master shipbuilders, pioneered mining in the Sinai Peninsula and mass-produced pottery for export.

Their intellectual achievements were no less great. Produced around 3000 BC, Egyptian papyrus is the distant cousin of modern-day paper. Today’s alphabets are indebted to Egyptian hieroglyphics, and Egyptians also used the first-known decimal system. The Egyptian astronomical calendar, invented around 2400 BC, was used for centuries after its creation.

Geography often shapes a nation’s fate, and Egypt stands as a prime example, relying extensively on the life-giving Nile River. With nearly 90% of its land as desert, the fertile banks of the Nile, adorned by lush farmlands and the sprawling Nile Delta, hold exceptional importance in Egypt’s history, contributing to one of the world’s most remarkable civilizations.

Nubia, an arid region in modern-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan, stretches 1,000 miles along the Nile River from Aswan to Khartoum. The ancient kings of Egypt shared a varied relationship with the Kushites—present-day Nubians of Sudan and southern Egypt. Initially, the Kushites were prized trading and military partners under Egypt’s dominion. However, this rapport oscillated from camaraderie to conflict as each region nurtured its distinct political, economic and cultural strengths. In 728 BC, Nubian King Piankhy, also known as Piye, led an army from Nubia to Egypt, establishing the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. Despite lasting fewer than 100 years, this dynasty profoundly influenced Egypt’s political landscape and the culture of the Late Period, roughly from 728 BC to the Christian Era, through the promotion of “archaizing” features in royal ideology and art.

Cultural exchange and archaism

Over centuries before Piankhy’s rule, Nubia embraced key Egyptian cultural aspects, including writing and religious practices. By the Third Intermediate Period, Nubians had often displayed greater devotion to the Egyptian pantheon than Egyptians themselves. Their most significant contribution lay in reintroducing established artistic styles—dubbed “archaism”—into Egyptian art. Drawing from Egypt’s Old and Middle kingdoms, Nubians infused distinct elements into pictorial reliefs and statuary. The statues of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, particularly those featuring rulers like Taharqa, departed from the conventional stylized form of Egyptian statuary. Taharqa’s depiction, for example, stood out with heightened realism, portraying him as taller, more muscular and featuring unmistakable sub-Saharan African facial features. This lifelike style persisted through successive dynasties, eventually evolving into today’s portrait-style statuary.

Nubian influence on kingship

Significant archaeological findings suggest Nubia’s role in shaping kingly rule, a pivotal political concept with potential influence on Egypt’s pharaohs. During the early 1960s, global archaeologists collaborated to rescue Nubian monuments threatened by the rising waters from the Aswan Dam. Among these artifacts, a stone incense burner stood out, adorned with motifs that later symbolized Egyptian pharaohs. Dating back to around 3100 BC or earlier, this discovery raises speculation that the concept of pharaonic power might have taken root concurrently or even earlier in Nubia. If so, the foundational notion of a pharaoh as a divine ruler—central to ancient Egyptian civilization—could have originated from Nubian inspiration.

Modern challenges and the road ahead

The narrative of Nubia extends to the present day, marked by enduring struggles. British-built Nile dams in the 20th century displaced thousands of Nubians from their farms and livelihoods. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 led to further displacement as ancestral lands submerged. Today, Nubians reside along a narrow Nile strip, advocating for compensation and the right to reclaim their unflooded villages. Egypt’s ratification of a new constitution in 2014 offered a glimmer of hope, pledging to restore Nubians to their original lands. This tale of Nubia weaves together history and contemporary challenges, showcasing the resilience of a people bound by heritage and determination.

Browsing the innumerable stalls of Khan el-Khalili is akin to stepping back in time, when camel caravans arrived to sell goods to merchants, lavishly robed carpet dealers unfurled their wares and locals stood idly by, puffing on long pipes with their heads wrapped in turbans.

The soul of Egypt

In today’s market, glittering brassware, vibrantly patterned carpets, mother-of-pearl handicrafts, papyrus scrolls and endless other goods spill into narrow warrens. In tiny cafés, local Cairenes sip mint tea, smoke hookahs and play backgammon. Cairo’s ancient marketplace is a richly textured cross section of Egyptian traditions.

Where locals go

The stalls along the main street of al Badestan overflow with souvenirs. The gold market near Muizz Street is a magnet for local grooms, while the scents of spices and perfumes waft through the air alongside the Al-Azhar Mosque. Still organized by trade, Khan el-Khalili remains a vital part of Cairene life and culture.

The discovery of 12 papyrus documents—the so-called “medical papyri”—offer details of scientific treatments and remedies used in ancient Egypt. Previously thought to be “irrational” and non-scientific, the medical practices outlined in the documents show that the methods used were not only rational, but far ahead of their time in their attempt to resolve a medical problem through careful observation and thoughtful intervention.

Ahead of their time

A key document was the Edwin Smith papyrus, a guide to diagnosing and treating 48 wounds. The oldest known surgical book in the world, it dates to 1600 BC and chronicles the treatment of head and torso injuries, leading some to propose that it may have been written for the battlefield. Additionally, it’s in this guide that the human brain, pulse, role of the heart in circulation and the role of the brain in voluntary movement were mentioned for the first time.

An ancient apothecary

The 12 medical papyri also opened doors to the ancient Egyptian apothecary. Some conditions were treated with prescribed medicines made from local plants and ingredients brought from the Near East, Africa and the Mediterranean. About 2,000 remedies, preparations and applications are covered in its pages. Remarkably, half of the ingredients listed are still in use today, though some are synthesized.

What mummies tell us

Recovered papyrus is not the only source of information we have about medicine in ancient Egypt. Mummified remains provide a more intimate glimpse of treatments. The healed fractures and amputation sites of preserved skeletons, for instance, reveal that practitioners had the tools, skills and knowledge to perform surgery successfully. In another case, researchers examined artificial toes found on preserved mummies, uncovering history’s first known prostheses.

The ways in which a culture treats its deceased are influenced by its religious beliefs and natural environment. The earliest Egyptians buried their dead in shallow desert pits. The arid air and sand dried up the bodies, creating natural mummies. Later, when the bodies of prominent members of society were placed in humid tombs, they decomposed. Mummification was introduced to mimic the natural dehydration that took place in the desert. Soon, the process took on great spiritual significance.

The physical link between life and afterlife

The preservation of the body became essential to the ancient Egyptian belief in the afterlife. The mummy was thought of as a home for the ka, or spirit. It could return whenever it wished to accept offerings left by friends and loved ones or to receive instruction from the Book of Life that had been buried with the body. Most importantly, it could read the spells inscribed on the walls of the tomb, which were critical to the spirit’s survival in the afterlife. If the body were to decompose, it would become unrecognizable to the ka, leaving it to go hungry and wander in an unknown realm.

Valley of the Kings: The most famous burial ground in the world

More than 80 tombs have been discovered in the spectacular Valley of the Kings. The mummified pharaohs of the New Kingdom and their priceless belongings were conveyed in a procession into the contours of these starkly beautiful hills, where workers might have spent years tunneling a tomb for their king. Among the many instructional images painted on the tomb walls was one of Osiris, god of the afterlife, who stood by with a scale to measure the deceased's heart against the feather of truth. If the scale favored the king, he was ushered into the next world.

The afterlife of the pharaohs’ priceless treasures

From gilded jewels and furnishings to remarkably preserved mummies and their decorative sarcophagi, the contents of tombs unearthed throughout Egypt are held in museums around the world, and many in Cairo's Grand Egyptian Museum. The tombs, though empty, retain much of the artistic splendor and ingenuity of their day.

So influential was the cult of Isis that even Ptolemaic and Roman rulers worshipped here to align themselves with her power. Under the Byzantine Empire, the island of Philae became a seat of Christianity. There is evidence that one of its chapels was used to worship both Osiris (god of the afterlife) and, later, Jesus.

Stunning architectural treasures

The temple’s massive pylons lend the site a monumental air. A large courtyard between them, flanked by two colonnades, hints at the ceremonies that once unfolded here. Adjacent, the lofty and elegant Kiosk of Trajan was constructed by the namesake Roman emperor. Sometimes called “the emperor's bed” for its resemblance to a canopy bed, it is believed to have been built to shelter the barque of Isis.

A meticulous recreation

These remarkably preserved temples were relocated to the island of Agilkia in the 1970s to save them from rising waters after the completion of the Aswan High Dam. The Temple of Isis, the Temple of Hathor, the Kiosk of Trajan and other structures were all placed and reconstructed to resemble the original complex on the island of Philae. Even the island’s landscaping was replicated, providing a fascinating glimpse of one of Egypt’s most significant sites.

When researchers discovered three small ceramic jars of cheese in the tomb of a noblewoman at Sakkara, they were astonished. Previously, almost nothing had been known about the consumption of cheese in ancient Egypt. Buried around 3000 BC, the cheese resembled Çökelek and Lor cheeses produced in present day Turkey. This incredible discovery, along with artwork of milking cattle and bags of milk products, indicates that cheese making was an important component of ancient Egyptian agriculture.

A feast fit for a pharaoh

Nobility brought many foods, including meat, into the afterlife. Like bodies of the deceased, meats were preserved through a process of slow drying with salt, bandaging and coating with a resin. King Tutankhamen’s tomb contained forty-eight wooden boxes of dried meats stored beneath a ritual cow-shaped couch. Finely woven baskets in the boy king’s tomb held wheat and barley, bread loaves, figs, dates, melons and grapes, while jars contained the residues of honey and wine.

Delicious Egyptian cuisine for this life

Today, Egyptians are consummate hosts who love to share their cuisine. Visitors to the country might sample meloukhia, a favorite thick green soup of leafy vegetables served with chicken, faseekh (salted and dried fish), freshly baked pita bread or mint tea.

A pioneering pharaoh

Among ancient Egypt’s powerful queens, none scaled the heights of authority quite like Hatshepsut. A beacon of inspiration, she shattered norms by assuming full pharaonic power. Her reign ushered in an era of peace and prosperity, marked by extensive trade routes reaching Punt, possibly modern-day Somalia. Her architectural prowess surpassed her male predecessors, with the crowning glory being Deir el-Bahri, a majestic temple in western Thebes that once hosted myrrh trees and refreshing fountains.

Breaking gender boundaries

Hatshepsut’s statues often portray her with a beard, not to mask her gender, but to align her with male forebears through pharaonic iconography. Linguistically feminine pharaonic names, however, strategically cemented her authority and goddess-like status, as the pharaoh was deemed on par with a deity.

Elevated women of antiquity

Egypt’s grand monuments echo the legacy of female pharaohs, queens and goddesses. Hatshepsut’s mark is indelible in the grandeur of Deir el-Bahri. Mighty women like Queen Nefertari and Cleopatra, preceding the Roman Empire, were resolute leaders. Respected goddesses—led by Isis, Mother of the Gods—embodied fertility, health and prosperity.

Influence on the women of Ancient Egypt

Tomb paintings and wall adornments reveal the essence of everyday Egyptian women. Poised and productive, they engaged in temple rituals, agriculture, hunting and market transactions—a rarity in their time. Elite women served as judges, priestesses and overseers, embodying strength and influence across society’s strata.

Napoleon’s scholarly expedition

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte led a French campaign into Egypt, accompanied by a team of esteemed scholars tasked with assessing and claiming Egypt’s cultural treasures. Among them, in the town of Rosetta, a soldier named Pierre Bouchard stumbled upon an enigmatic black basalt slab etched with inscriptions in three ancient scripts. Little did he know that this discovery would unlock the secrets of an age-old language that had perplexed scholars for centuries.

Cracking the cryptic code

The inscriptions encompassed Greek, hieroglyphics and demotic scripts. While only the Greek text could be initially deciphered, it revealed that the stone contained three versions of a decree issued in 196 BC at Memphis. This provided scholars with a key to decode and compare the Egyptian inscriptions with the Greek. Consequently, the enigma of hieroglyphics, dormant beneath layers of history, was gradually unraveled, unveiling the intricate language and culture of ancient Egypt.

Deciphering the ancient language

Hieroglyphics adorned the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples, reflecting cultural and societal norms. They ranged from symbolic representations of objects and sounds to more complex concepts. Approximately 1,000 distinct characters fall into four categories: alphabetic signs for single sounds, syllabic signs for sound combinations, word signs denoting objects and determinatives as visual cues guiding interpretation.

The Rosetta Stone’s legacy

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1801, the Rosetta Stone came under British possession. Housed at London’s British Museum, this famed stele has become the museum’s most visited artifact, chronicling history and serving as a portal to the past.

The triumph of discovery

In November 1922, a historic moment unfolded as Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter, partners in Egyptology, uncovered the treasures within Tutankhamen’s tomb. As Carter illuminated the chamber, Carnarvon inquired, “Can you see anything?” Carter famously responded, “Yes, wonderful things.”

Tutankhamen’s trove

Tutankhamen’s tomb yielded over 5,000 artifacts, including a golden coffin, thrones, archery bows, food, wine, sandals and even a dagger with a blade crafted from a meteorite. Carter meticulously cataloged these riches over a decade, with many items touring global museums. The discovery ignited Egyptian Revivalism—an architectural movement reflecting ancient temple aesthetics.

A king’s modest resting place

Despite ruling during Egypt’s zenith from ages 9 to 19, King Tut’s tomb was unexpectedly small for a pharaoh of his stature. Some speculate his untimely demise led to his interment in a tomb intended for another.

The fateful unveiling

Lord Carnarvon and Carter meticulously planned their Egyptian expeditions in Highclere Castle’s esteemed chambers. Battling financial strain and war-induced halts, their 1922 decision to unearth one last area marked the turning point.

A lifetime devotion

The duo’s groundbreaking discovery of history’s most renowned buried tomb rekindled global interest in ancient Egypt. Beyond Lord Carnarvon’s passing, his widow shared these treasures with museums, and some reached the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The 8th Earl and Countess of Carnarvon at Highclere Castle now preserve Carter’s discreetly stored items, uncovered in 1987. Among these treasures are resplendent jewelry, gilded masks, noblewoman's coffins and intricately carved figures, complemented by items graciously returned by the British Museum and Newbury Museum.