Set sail for Asia

Achieving nirvana through enlightenment

While Buddhism’s popularity in India has waned, it continues to thrive in Asia with estimates of 324 million Buddhists worldwide.

Buddhism was born on the Indian subcontinent and is based largely on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama—commonly known as “the Buddha” (meaning “the awakened one” in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent circa 563 BC-483 BC and is recognized as an enlightened teacher who helped sentient beings end suffering and achieve the highest level of happiness.

The rise of Buddhism

Around 250 BC, the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great embraced Buddhism after witnessing the horrors of war. It gave him such a sense of peace that he wanted to share its principles with as many people as possible, and so he sent Buddhist missionaries to faraway countries including China, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and even Greece.

As Buddhism began to spread outward from India, different practices took shape. Theravada Buddhism is based on the idea that everyone must seek enlightenment on their own behalf. Mahayana, or “Great Vehicle” Buddhism, allows for the existence of bodhisattvas—beings who seek buddhahood, or perfect enlightenment, on behalf of all sentient beings. Vajrayana, or tantra, is widely practiced in Tibet and Mongolia and includes visualization, the chanting of mantras, study with a guru, the use of mandalas and yoga practice.

A shared goal through varied practice

Though schools of Buddhism vary on their approach, all agree that the shared goal is nirvana—peace or stillness of mind—and liberation from samsara, the karmic cycle of rebirth, plagued as it is by pain, desire and ignorance. The three “jewels” of the Buddhist path are the Buddha, the dharma (teachings) and the sangha (community). Related principles are mindfulness, ethical behavior, devotion and supporting (or becoming part of) the monastic community.

A worldwide culinary favorite, Vietnamese summer rolls—also known as spring rolls—are one of Southeast Asia’s best-known dishes. Beloved by locals seeking to stay cool during hot, humid weather, these chilled rolls are healthy, filling and portable. No matter when or where you enjoy them, summer rolls offer a taste of Vietnam’s proud culinary heritage. This light, delectable appetizer is packed with local ingredients from the Mekong Delta and South China Sea.

Vietnamese summer rolls—or gỏi cuốn, which translates to “salad roll”—showcase the finest products available from the region’s rice fields and floating markets. A typical preparation includes carrots, cucumbers, shrimp, peanuts, vermicelli noodles and fresh herbs rolled inside a rehydrated sheet of rice paper. This flavorful dish is served chilled with a spicy dipping sauce.

Summer rolls likely originated in China during the Jin Dynasty (266–420 AD) and were consumed to commemorate the first day of spring. By the end of the 3rd century, the Chinese had introduced the dish to Vietnam, and the rolls were adapted to suit Vietnamese palates.

The history of tea in China is long and complex, given that the Chinese have enjoyed tea for millennia. Scholars hailed the brew as a cure for a variety of ailments, the nobility considered the consumption of good tea as a mark of their status and the common people simply enjoyed its flavor. In 2016, the earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han (d. 141 AD) in Xian. Tea then became a popular drink in the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties.

This article highlights two central components of China’s rich traditions surrounding tea: the ceremony of “Gongfu Cha” and the sophisticated porcelain for which the country has been known for centuries.

The origins of tea ceremonies

For centuries, steaming tea leaves was the primary method used in the preparation of tea. The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century, when tea leaves began to be roasted rather than steamed. This is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea.

Traditional Chinese tea ceremonies, known as “Gongfu Cha,” are a refined and intricate practice that emphasizes the art of brewing and appreciating tea. Originating during the Song Dynasty, these ceremonies involve a series of precise steps, including the selection of high-quality tea leaves, the use of specialized teaware and the careful control of water temperature and brewing time. The process is often performed in a serene and contemplative setting, allowing participants to savor the aroma, taste and appearance of the tea. Gongfu Cha is not only a social activity but also a cultural expression that reflects the values of harmony, respect and tranquility in Chinese society.

Traditional Chinese porcelain

Ceramics of all types have been important in Chinese culture for millennia. Porcelain’s initial creation date continues to be up for debate, but scholars believe that it began during the Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD).

Porcelain is a high-firing white clay bodied ceramic, which is usually pure white due to the high content of a clay component known as kaolin. These characteristics allow for the creation of white porcelain of finer, thinner and lighter-weight vessels—perfect for the application of colorful glaze designs.

Porcelain became the object of desire first by emperors, later the wealthy Chinese merchants, and eventually Europeans and North Americans in later centuries. The imperial kilns at Jingdezhen, where porcelain may have been produced as early as the 6th century, created extremely fine porcelain from the 14th century onwards.

Once the clay has been prepared, shaped or molded by hand, it is glazed, either with a solid color or perhaps more intricately decorated with a hand-drawn design of one or more colors. The glazed pots are then loaded into a kiln and fired at a much higher temperature than other stoneware or earthenware.

In Hindu and Buddhist mythology, an Apsara is a female spirit of the clouds and waters. Frequently encountered English translations of the word “Apsara” include “nymphs,” “celestial nymphs” and “celestial maidens.” Due to their association with water, they may be compared with the naiads of ancient Greece. These supernatural women—youthful, elegant and skilled in the art of dance—are often depicted in bas-relief on temple walls in Cambodia, Java and Bali. Their beauty and skill provided entertainment for gods and men alike, and they were said to be the caretakers of fallen heroes.

Thousands of mesmerizing movements

Today, more than 1,500 deliberate, mesmerizing movements and hand gestures characterize the dance of Apsara. Each of these gestures, called kbach, represents a natural element such as fruit, leaves or flowers. In addition to the kbach, dancers must perfect approximately 3,000 distinct poses. It is said that mastery of the dance occurs only after a full nine years of training. Male dancers are also used to portray certain roles, and they too must undergo rigorous instruction in the art of Apsara.

A royal dance

During Apsara’s 12th-century heyday, King Jayavarman VII boasted approximately 3,000 dancers in his court. The fall of Angkor during the 15th century led to far fewer dancers, and the art form remained confined to the walls of the royal court until the mid-20th century. The newly created Cambodian Royal Ballet began touring internationally to share Cambodian culture and heritage.

UNESCO honors Apsara

Like many traditional Cambodian arts, Apsara dance was almost lost during the era of the Khmer Rouge. Fortunately, a few practitioners survived the regime and were able to revive the art form during the 1980s and 1990s, and today Apsara performances are a regular occurrence in Siem Reap, Phnom Penh and other major areas. In 2008, UNESCO inscribed Apsara dance onto its Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

French colonial legacy in Indochina

Indochina, encompassing present-day Vietnam and Cambodia, was a French colony from 1887 to 1954. French engagement in Vietnam dates back to the 17th century with Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes. A French Catholic priest, Pigneau de Béhaine, played a pivotal role in assisting Vietnam’s Nguyen dynasty.

Missionary activity and political intrigues

The 19th century witnessed fervent missionary endeavors supported by the French government, prompting local resistance. The French countered this resistance, impacting the restored Nguyen dynasty. Cambodia’s plea for protection resulted in a 1863 agreement with France, gaining protection from Thailand in exchange for territorial concessions.

Cultural and linguistic impacts

French cultural influence left a lasting mark, introducing Catholicism and establishing French as the language for education, administration and trade. This linguistic impact persisted beyond colonial rule, with remnants still discernible in contemporary times.

Colonial classifications and economic ventures

French Indochina can be classified as a “colony of exploitation,” meaning that taxes were raised locally to fund the presence of the French government. The French began trading locally and produced opium, salt and rice alcohol, and took over the minting of the colony’s currency, the French Indochinese piastre.

French interests in Vietnam expanded to tea, rice, coffee, pepper, coal, zinc and tin; from Cambodia, they harvested rice and pepper. At the turn of the 20th century, the French government established rubber plantations in Vietnam to supply companies like Michelin and began to open factories to process rubber and other commodities.

Infrastructure development and resilient resistance

The French initiated the construction of hospitals, dams, canals and railways, yet these projects often imposed substantial financial burdens on the local populace. In 1930, Ho Chi Minh organized a Communist resistance movement against French occupation. WWII witnessed Japanese control, followed by French return until their final expulsion in 1954.

Enduring cultural influence

French influence has left indelible marks in language, architecture and customs. Sidewalk cafés, opera houses and culinary offerings continue to reflect this historical amalgamation. French influence on the local cuisine has been profound, with numerous local restaurants serving a fusion cuisine featuring such dishes as noodles with escargot, beef curry with French- or Vietnamese-style baguettes, pâté, sa lát (salad) and French-inspired meat pastries.

Thailand offers a wealth of natural beauty, especially near destinations such as Bangkok and Phuket. In the heart of Bangkok itself, Lumpini Park offers visitors a green oasis perfect for a leisurely stroll or a picnic. Near Phuket, Kata Beach and Patong Beach are famous for their soft sands and clear waters, ideal for relaxation and water activities. Nature enthusiasts can also explore Phuket Elephant Sanctuary, where rescued elephants roam freely in their natural habitat. For a unique experience, visit Phuket’s Monkey Hill, where you can interact with playful monkeys and enjoy panoramic views of Phuket Town.

Thailand is also home to several notable national parks. Established in 1962 as Thailand’s first national park, Khao Yai National Park is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Situated 109 mi. (175 km) from Bangkok, it features lush forests, diverse wildlife and stunning waterfalls. It is one of the few places in Thailand where wild elephants still survive. Thailand’s largest national park, Kaeng Krachan National Park, offers breathtaking views, ample hiking trails and abundant wildlife. Notable mammal species include elephants, bears and leopards. There are also more than 400 bird species, making it a birdwatcher’s paradise.

Prehistory: The migration

The earliest non-Aboriginal Southeast Asians appear to have arrived from southern China around 2500 BC. Around 1500 BC, the Mon people and ancestors of the Khmer came from Burma (now Myanmar), while Thai people arrived from southern China. By around the 5th century BC, the people of what is now known as the Ðông Sơn culture in present-day Vietnam had mastered the art of metalwork.

Ancient kingdoms

Southeast Asia’s ancient kingdoms can be grouped into two types: agrarian economies (including Ayutthaya and Khmer) and maritime trading economies (including Malacca and Srivijaya). While the agrarian empires were mighty, Southeast Asia rapidly became an international trading hub, first between India and China. This inevitably led to considerable cross-pollination of ideas, including the import of Buddhism and Hinduism from India. Western travel to Southeast Asia began in 166 AD with the arrival of merchants from the Roman Empire. In 1295, Marco Polo returned to his native Venice after a lengthy tour of Asia, bearing treasures and tales of wonder.

The colonial era

Europeans heard the siren song of trade with Southeast Asia in the early 16th century—and the missionaries came along to spread the message of Christianity. The Dutch formed the Dutch East India Company, which established a city known as Batavia (now Jakarta) as a trading base. Britain, in turn, formed the British East India Company, based in the Malay state of Penang. International squabbles led to these areas changing hands frequently among the Dutch, Spanish and British. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch, but in 1824 an Anglo-Dutch treaty was struck which clearly demarcated the areas’ respective territories.

As colonial activities increased, the entire region was taken over by European powers—with the exception of Thailand, which never fell under foreign rule despite being affected by colonialism. By the early 20th century, the British occupied Burma, Malaysia and northern Borneo, the French controlled Indochina (roughly Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos), the Dutch ruled the Dutch East Indies (Sumatra, Java, Borneo and New Guinea), and Portugal had claimed Timor. Spain ruled the Philippines, but was forced to hand it over to the US in 1898 following the conclusion of the Spanish-American War.

Though colonial rule had a profound and permanent effect on the region’s use of resources, demographics and culture, the situation remained relatively stable until the arrival of World War II.